A black perfect little dress?

A black perfect little dress?: "
Q: Why do we say “a perfect little black dress” instead of “a black perfect little dress”?
A: Guess what, there’s a general formula for the order of adjectives in English. (Isn’t there a general formula for everything?)
This is why we say “a perfect little black dress” instead of “a black perfect little dress.”
As The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language explains, size usually comes before color: “A large black sofa represents the preferred order while a black large sofa is very unnatural” (page 452).
Well, that explains “little black dress.” But why does “perfect” come before “little” and “black”? Read on.
Cambridge distinguishes between two kinds of “pre-head modifiers” (for our purposes, these are adjectives preceding a noun): the “early” ones and the “residual” ones.
As a rule, the “early” ones come first, and they account for things like quantity (as in “two,” or “enough,” or “another”); superlatives (“largest”); order (“second”); and rank or importance (“key”).
After these come the following kinds of adjectives, which Cambridge lists in this order:
(1) Evaluative (these express a speaker’s subjective opinion), as in “good,” “bad” “attractive,” “tasty,” “valuable,” “perfect.”
(2) General property (these represent a quality that can be observed objectively, like size, taste, and smell, as well as human characteristics). Examples include “big,” “fat,” “thin,” “sweet,” “ear-splitting,” “long,” “jealous,” “pompous,” “wise.”
(3) Age, as in “old,” “new,” “young,” “modern,” “ancient,” “up-to-date.”
(4) Color, as in “black, “green,” “crimson,” “powder-blue.”
(5) Provenance, as in “French,” “Chinese,” “Venezuelan.”
(6) Manufacture (these describe what something is made of, or how or by whom it’s made). Examples include “woolen,” “wooden,” “cotton,” “iron,” “carved,” “enameled,” “Sainsbury’s.”
(7) Type, as in “men’s,” “women’s,” “children’s,” and words (often nouns) like those underlined in these phrases: “sports car,” “photograph album,” “dessert spoon,” “passenger aircraft,” “laptop computer,” “winter overcoat,” “digestive biscuit,” “summer’s day.”
Cambridge gives the following as an example using all seven kinds of adjectives: “an attractive tight-fitting brand-new pink Italian lycra women’s swimsuit.”
This explanation isn’t rigid, but it shows how adjectives generally fall into line.
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Complex Object and Complex Subject (2 in 1)

Complex Object
1. After the verbs of PHYSICAL PERCEPTION: see, hear, watch, notice, feel, observe e.g. I saw him run (running). I watched her cry (crying). I noticed him smile (smiling). I felt my hand trembling. NB. After "to see" = to understand, to realize a subordinate clause should be used: e.g. I saw he was trying to deceive me "to hear" = to be aware of I hear he has left for london.		Without TO
2. After the verbs of MENTAL PERCEPTION: think, consider, find, believe, expect, admit, know, suppose, imagine feel, trust, acknowledge, assume, deny, prove e.g. I think him to be a good man. I found him broken. She felt her story to impress him. I consider it (to be) foolish. I trust you to do this work on time. + after the verbs of Declaring: pronounce, declare : e.g. I pronounce you (to be) man and wife.		With or without TO (in many cases "to be" is omitted)
3. After the verbs expressing ORDER, PERMISION, REQUEST, COMPULSION: let, make, have * order ask force cause allow suffer (без "to" ) command compel request persuade mean get e.g. I'll have him do it. Don't let her go. You made her cry. She asked him to come on time. I won't have you object to me.		With TO
4. After the verbs expressing LIKING, DISLIKING, WISH, PREFERENCE: want, wish, would like, hate, can't stand, desire, mean, intend, choose (хотеть), like, dislike, love e.g. I would like you to go there. I hate you to think we're late on purpose.		With TO
CO is translated into Russian by a) a subord. object caluse (я видел, как (что)) or b) a construction with an infinitive. Verbs which require a preposition preserve it with CO (wait for, rely on, listen to) e.g. He listened to the wind blowing outside. Participle I shows the action in progress e.g. I saw him running. Participle II is used in CO after "have" in "to have smth done" e.g. I've had my hair cut.
COMPLEX SUBJECT (all the forms of the infinitive)
In the ACTIVE VOICE	In the PASSIVE VOICE
1.After: seem, appear, happen, chance, prove, turn out e.g. He seems to know everything. She chanced to be in the park. He appeared to be a good man. The book has proved to be useful. He happened to have seen this movie. 2.with the phrases: to be certain (наверняка), to be likely, to be sure (несомненно), to be unlikely. e.g. He is unlikely to appear in the street tonight. He is sure to have seen this movie.	1.After the verbs of MENTAL or PHYSICAL PERCEPTION: see, hear, think, consider, know, expect, believe, suppose e.g. The were heard to laugh (laughing) heartily She was seen to leave (leaving) the house 2.After the verbs of ORDER, PERMISION, REQUEST, COMPULSION: let, make, order, ask, force, allow, compel, request, persuade. e.g. She was requested to wait for a few minutes.   3. After the verbs of SAYING, REPORTING say, report, allege, pronounce e.g. She is said to resemble me. She is reported (to be) missing.   4.After the verbs of WISH, EXPECTATION suppose, expect e.g. He was supposed to be dead, She was expected to come on Friday NB. A perfect infinitive shows that the action wasn't carried out: e.g. He was supposed to have come on Monday (but he didn't)
The Particle "to" is not used:
1.After MODALS (except: ought to, have to, be to, *need, dare) + had better, would rather … than, would sooner, can't help but, have nothing to do but, won't have, can't but, do nothing but (save) 2. After the verbs of PHYSICAL PERCEPTION: see, hear, watch, observe, feel, notice NB. If see, hear, feel are used in the meaning of mental perception "to" is used: e.g. I hear him to leave.(Я слышал он уехал) I felt my hand to be freezing. 3. After let, make, have e.g. I won't have you talk to me like that. 4.in RHETORICAL and COLLOQUIAL QUESTIONS: e.g. Why stay here? Why not go home? How leave her there? NB. 1. Know (be aware of) à Present & Past Simple + to = I know it to be true. (experience, witness) à без to = I've never known him smile. 2. help (admits of variations) e.g. Help me (to) do it. 3. In the passive voice the inf is alwways used with to e.g. They were seen to leave.

Dynamic vs. Stative

Present Simple is used with the following verbs instead Present Progressive

-physical perceptions: hear, notice, see, feel
-emotions: like, love, hate, adore, detest.
-wish: desire, want, wish
-mental processes: believe, think, know, understand, remember, recognize, imagine, doubt, consider, expect, mind
-relation: be, have, own, deserve, depend
-other: allow, astonish, envy, fail to do, find, forgive, intend, interest, keep doing, manage to do, mean, please, prefer, realize, refuse, remind, seem, smell, sound, succeed, surprise, taste, tend value.

e.g. I know this man. (Нельзя сказать: I’m knowing …)

Present Progressive may be used in the following cases with specific meaning

DYNAMIC VERBS: (can be used in the progressive to express ...)

1.Activity verbs:(ask, beg, call, drink, play, read, listen to) - PROCESS
Process verbs: (change, widen, deteriorate, grow, fall, die)
2.Bodily Sensation:(ache, feel, hurt, itch) ------------------------- INTENSITY
3.Momentary actions:(hit, jump, kick, knock, nod, tap) ------- - REPETITION
e.g. She is asking you to be quiet.
      I’m feeling very nervous.
      The boxer is hitting another boxer.

STATIVE VERBS: 

(usually not used in the progressive but when used their meanings are affected)

1.Physical Perception: “see” - (увидеться, проводить) e.g. Are you seeing me?
2.Emotions & wish: - intensification e.g. I’m loving you.
3.Mental Processes:
consider (= изучать) -  e.g. We are considering your application.
expect (= ожидать) - e.g. I’m expecting a visitor.
mind (= присматривать) - e.g. Is anyone minding the baby while you are out?
think (= процесс мышления) - e.g. Be quiet! I’m thinking.

4.Relational verbs:
be (= behave) - e.g. You are being rude.
have a smoke, have dinner, have something done, have a walk breakfast (a bath coffee / teaa party troubles / difficulties)
e.g. They are having dinner at the moment. I’m having my room painted.

5. Additionally:
I’m noticing the changes. notice …
I’m understanding you. I’m beginning to understand …
I’m forgetting my French. forget …

FIVE SENSES

    VOLUNTARY                   INVOLUNTARY
I’m listening to you.                I hear you.
I’m looking at you.                  I see you.
I’m feeling this pillow.            I feel a pin in it.
I’m smelling the flower.         I smell gas. It smells awful
I’m tasting this soup.             I taste pepper in it. I tastes hot.

The Number of Nouns

Irregular Plural

   1. Root change (man – men, woman – women, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, mouse – mice, louse – lice)
   2.Suffix –en (ox – oxen, child – children, brother – brethren not by blood but by religious beliefs)

The following nouns have the same form for the singular and the plural

1.  A sheep – sheep, a fish – fish, a grouse – grouse, a salmon – salmon,
A swine – swine, a craft – craft, a mackerel – mackerel, an aircraft – aircraft
A deer – deer, a counsel – counsel, a plaice – plaice, a wine – wine,
A moose – moose, a carp – carp a trout – trout a fruit – fruit
NB. Fish, wine may be used if we mean different kinds e.g. We saw a lot of fishes.

 2.     hundred, thousand, million, dozen, pair, score, brace, head don’t change if they have a numeral :e.g. three score of years, two dozen of eggs
    *When used by themselves s is added to them: e.g. in dozens, scores of people, in pairs, thousands of people

3.Nationalities: Vietnamese, Portuguese, Swiss, Japanese,

*These nouns ending in –s remain unchanged in the plural: barracks, bellows, gallows, works, golf links, headquarters, innings, kennels, series, species, means, corps

NB! Gate – gates, sledge – sledges, watch – watches, export – exports, import - imports may be plural in English. In Russian they are only plural: ворота, санки, часы.

Borrowed Nouns

Greek: (is -es) analysis – analyses, axis – axes, basis – bases, crisis – crises, diagnosis – diagnoses, ellipsis – ellipses, hypothesis – hypotheses, oasis – oases, thesis – theses,
BUT: metropolis – metropolises
(on - a) : criterion – criteria, phenomenon – phenomena,
BUT: demon – demons, electron – electrons, neutrons, protons, ganglions

Latin: (us - i) : alumnus – alumni, bacillus – bacilli, nucleus – nuclei, radius – radii
(a - ae): antenna – antennae, larva – larvae, nebula – nebulae, vertebra – vertebrae, formula – formulae
(ex,ix - ices): codex – codices, apex – apices, index – indices (мат.), vortex – vortices, matrix – matrices
(um - a): addendum – addenda, aquarium – aquaria, bacterium – bacteria, medium – media, curriculum – curricula, stratum – strata, memorandum - memoranda

Usual Plural: bonus, campus, chorus, circus, virus, area, arena, dilemma, diploma, drama, album, chrysanthemum, museum, stadium, forum, ultimatum, symposeum.
data (is / are), cactus, nebula, antenna, vertebra, indexes(в книге), curriculums, aqauriums.

French: eau[ou] - eaux [ouz]: tableau – tableaux, adieu – adieux, bureau – bureaux
[z] is pronounced in plural: chamois, chassis, corps, faux pas, patois.

Hebrew: cherub – cherubs, seraph – seraphs, kibbutz – kibbutzim

COMPOUNDS

   1. Plural in the last element: bookcases, toothbrushes, handfuls, mouthfuls, spoonfuls, postmen, woman-haters, grown-ups, forget-me-nots, gin & tonics, Englishmen,
assistant directors, boyfriends, fountain pens, breakdowns, sit-ins, take-offs, Germans, Romans, Normans.

   2. First component is made plural: passers-by, mothers-in-law, men-of-war, grant-in-aids.
NB! If the firs component is “man” or “woman” denoting professions both parts are made plural: e.g. a man-servant – men-servants, a woman doctor – women doctors, a gentleman farmer – gentlemen farmers.

3.-y preceded by a consonant - ies (stories, fly – flies, countries)
   -y preceded by a vowel - s (play – plays, key – keys)

4.- f (- fe) - ves (calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, thief, wolf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, wife e.g. wife – wives)
- f (- fe) + s (beliefs, chiefs, handkerchiefs, cliffs, proofs, roofs, muffs, safes, gulf, griefs, cuffs)
- fs or ves (dwarf, handkerchief, hoof, scarf, wharf e.g. hoofs,hooves)

Spelling

I. - es after s,ss,sh,tch,x,z (glasses, boxes, watches)
II.– es after o (potatoes, tomatoes, heroes, Negroes, echoes, mottoes)
III.-os:
   1. o preceded by a vowel (radios, studios, zoos, kangaroos, embryos)
   2. abbreviations ( kilos, memos, pros, photos)
   3. musical terms and instruments (concertos, pianos, solos, sopranos)
   4. in proper names (Romeos, Eskimos, Filipinos)

NB! -os or –oes (possible) : buffalo(e)s, commando(e)s, tornado(e)s, cargo(e)s, mosquito(e)s, volcano(e)s Formation

Pronunciation

[z] after vowels & voiced consonants (days, dogs, birds)
[s] after voiceless consonants (books, coats)
[iz] after s,ss,sh,tch,x,z + mute “e” preceded by s,c,z,g,t,d (classes, dishes, prizes)
NB. house – houses [haus – hauziz]

[/θ/] - [z] - (baths*, oaths*, sheaths*, truths*, wreaths*, youths*, mouths*, paths*)
But ([ s] - (cloths, deaths, faiths, months, moths, truths, youths, baths)

Present Perfect: Theory and Practice

  In addition  to this post about Present Perfect
Level 1, Level 2, Level 3 

• Verb Tense Exercise 5 Simple Past and Present Perfect
• Verb Tense Exercise 6 Simple Past and Present Perfect
• Verb Tense Exercise 7 Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 8 Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 12 Simple Past, Present Perfect, and Past Perfect
• Verb Tense Exercise 14 Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous, and Past Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 16 Present and Past Tenses with Non-Continuous Verbs
• Verb Tense Exercise 17 Present and Past Tense Review
• Verb Tense Practice Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review
• Verb Tense Final Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review    

taken from here

The Possessive Case

• ’s or ’ is added to the noun. The noun may be singular (boy’s) or plural (boys’)
• Proper names ending in –s: Archimides’ law, Sophocles’ play, Hercules’ labour, Burns’ (Burns’s) poems, Dickens’(Dickens’s) novels < [iz].
• Note: my father-in-law’s wife, the passer-by’s remark – the passers-by’s remarks.

Sound Transformations:
[z] after vowels & voiced consonants (boy’s)
[s] after voiceless consonants (wife’s)
[iz]  after s,ss,sh,tch,x,z  (prince’s, judge’s)

  We use it with:

   I.Animate nouns:
-higher animals  (the lion’s cage, the dog’s barking)
-personal names (Mary’s car, Paul’s computer)
-personal nouns (my friend’s visit, the man’s answer)
-collective nouns (the party’s platform, the government’s policy)

II. Inanimate nouns:
-temporal nouns (a day’s work, a few days’ trip, a moment’s pause, today’s meeting, an hour’s trip, yesterday’s conversation, , )
-distance, measure (a mile’s distance, a few dollars’ worth)
-geographic names (world, country, city, town, continent) e.g. the country’s population, Europe’s future, the United States’ policy, London’s tube
-locative nouns (the island’s outline, the school’s history)
-the sun, the moon, the earth (the sun’s energy, the moon’s beauty)
-river, ocean, boat, ship (the ocean’s depth, the ship’s crew)
-car, play, newspaper, nation (the car’s engine)

III.Set Phrases
In one’s minds eye
at one’s wit’s ends
a pin’s head
out of harm’s way
to one’s heart’s content
duty’s call
at one’s finger’s tips (end)
a needle’s point
for goodness’ sake
to a hair’s breadth
for appearance’s sake
at a stone’s throw
at a snail’s pace
at the water’s edge
a spider’s web
a giant’s task
the serpent’s tooth
a fool’s errand
the bee’s sting
a cat’s paw
child’s play

IV. Group Genitive (two or more elements in which the last takes –s)
Mom and Dad’s room,
the Prime Minister of England’s residence,
mother-in-law’s funeral,
somebody else’s umbrella,
the man we saw yesterday’s son

V.Double Genitive (’s & of)
It’s the old friend of Mike’s.

VI. A Place where business, trade etc are conducted.
(We omit such words as a school, a house, a hospital, a church. Usually it’s a building or an office.)
at the bakery’s
at the confectionery’s
at the greengrocer’s
at St. Paul’s  e.g. They were married at St.Paul’s.
I was at the grocer’s and I heard she was staying at her son’s
NB! Yesterday I was at Mike’s (place) = вчера я был у Майка дома

Past Simple

Actions in the past in narration & conversation which can be translated by verbs of совершенного or несовершенного вида depending on the context. Time is definite i.e. the speaker knows what he’s talking about.
General Time Specification:
-adv. mod: Yesterday, 2 days ago, last week, on Monday,in 1999, the other day
-sub. clause: e.g. He called when I was out.
-implied past: e.g. I bought this T-shirt in Texas. Sorry, I didn’t mean to hurt you.


1.Single action performed in the past: (single contin. action may be specified by FOR, DURING)
e.g. I saw him the other day. We quarrelled for 3 days. During the match he slept.

2.Succession in narration: e.g. I opened the door and saw her.
We walked all day and arrived 2 minutes ago.

3.Repeated actions in the past: (often, never, sometimes, now and again (then), for days.) e.g. She often saw him in the street.

4.Permanent past actions:
-indicates continuous processes in the past giving a general characteristic to the person or a thing denoted by the subject
e.g. She had a large nose. The house stood on the hill. She was fond of him.

-USED TO {ju:st} – бывало (когда-то часто)
e.g. She used to give me chocolate. I used to be a sentimental guy.
Did she use to know a lot of English words?

-WOULD (= officially USED TO): e.g. She would sleep 5 hours a day. Practice!

5.Action going on at the given past moment:
-obligatory with statives : e.g. He wanted all her troubles for himself at that moment.
-with sit, stand, lie, hang, shine, gleam, talk, speak, wear, carry, walk, action as such is named not the circumstances which are more important (with inanimate things it’s a must):
e.g. She sat in the garden and listened to the birds. He wore a black uniform.
A book lay on the table.

6.Future action viewed from the past (only in reported speech)
-clauses of Time, Condition, Concession:
e.g. He knew she was determined to marry him and would, if she though it useful, lie and cheat until she brought it off.

7.Unreal Actions (Subjunctive Mood)
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Listen to Dr.Evil describing his childhood. Fill in the blanks with the verb "to be" in the Past Simple as you're listening. Pay special attention to the usage of "would" to express customary past actions.

The details of my life are quite inconsequential.... Very well, where do I begin? My father ... a relentlessly self-improving boulangerie owner from Belgium with low-grade narcolepsy and a penchant for buggery. My mother ... a 15-year-old French prostitute named Chloe with webbed feet. My father would womanize; he would drink. He would make outrageous claims like he invented the question mark. Sometimes, he would accuse chestnuts of being lazy. The sort of general malaise that only the genius possess and the insane lament... My childhood ... typical: summers in Rangoon... luge lessons... In the spring, we'd make meat helmets... When I was insolent I was placed in a burlap bag and beaten with reeds — pretty standard, really. At the age of 12, I received my first scribe. At the age of 14, a Zoroastrian named Wilma ritualistically shaved my testicles — there really is nothing like a shorn scrotum — it's breathtaking... I suggest you try it.